An increasing number of social scientists are visiting the People's Republic of China and are interested in obtaining pertinent reading materials. Because a visit to China is such a rich and almost overwhelming experience, there is a need for the first-time visitor to place the multitudinous impressions in the perspective of the views and impressions of other professionals.

In September 1982, I visited China as part of a mental health delegation, headed by Sheldon Korchin. When we returned to the United States, we requested that our university do a computerized literature search on the topic, "Psychology in China," and its variants. The result was a listing of 826 citations, a large majority of which were either in inaccessible journals, not in English, totally irrelevant, or outdated.

The 54 studies presented here are the most relevant published since 1970; with a few exceptions, studies from Taiwan or Hawaii, or with Chinese-American subjects are not included; neither are studies from journals not available in a typical university library. The number of references given in each article are indicated for the reader who wishes to pursue a specific topic.

1. Belgum, D. (1978). Medicine and morals and Mao. Journal of Religion and Health, 17 , 261-273.

The author, a professor in the School of Religion and Department of Internal Medicine (University of Iowa) visited China in October, 1976.

The article discusses Mao's central beliefs of "put politics in command" and "serve the people" as they relate to medicine. It also deals with the focus on mutual independence, social solidarity, and communal solutions to problems in China. There are some interesting insights on how prostitution and veneral disease were eliminated and on the ability of Mao to use both ancient and modern ways, as well as descriptions of rural health and the education of barefoot doctors.

No. of references: 6

2. Bloomingdale, L. M. (1980). Chinese psychiatry after Mao Zedong. Psychiatric Annals, 10 , 217-224.

The author, a New York psychiatrist, visited China in 1979 for a 2-week period. This report is based mainly on visits to Peking No. 3 Psychiatric Hospital and the Hunan Provincial Psychiatric Hospital in Changsha.

Chinese psychiatry is similar to that of the United States in the late 1960s. Western medications are used, but with smaller dosages. Between 70% and 80% of hospitalized patients are diagnosed as schizophrenic. Insulin shock is used extensively but electroconvulsive therapy is used only as a last resort. There is a low incidence of depression and of suicide. Electric acupuncture is used widely, psychotherapy resembles idealogical persuasion, and there is no subspecialty of child psychiatry.

School children seem well adjusted and cooperative rather than competitive. Men typically marry at age 27 and women at age 25 or 26. Divorce and pre- and extramarital sexual activity are rare. Birth control is emphasized. Homosexuality exists, but is not publicly visible.

No. of references: 30

3. Borke, H. , & Su, S. (1972). Perception of emotional responses to social interactions by Chinese and American children. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 3 , 309-314.

A comparison of the responses of Chinese and American children to social interaction situations involving the four primary affects of happy, sad, afraid, and angry. Seventy American and 80 Taiwanese kindergarten children were asked to describe situations and actions that resulted in their feeling happy, sad, afraid, and angry. Based on these responses, sets of stories were constructed and administered to second graders who were asked to identify each story with one of four stylized faces representing the four emotions. Chinese children perceived significantly more angry reactions, whereas American children perceived significantly more sad reactions.

No. of references: 8

4. Breiner, S. J. (1980). Early child development in China. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 11 , 87-95.

The author is a psychiatrist at Michigan State University who visited China in March 1979. He describes his experiences visiting children's facilities. He reports that Chinese children are lovely and well behaved but utterly lacking in spontaneity, and teachers do not recognize the possibility of emotional problems in children nor the importance of adult-child interactions such as cuddling.

No. of references: 11

5. Brown, L. B. (1981). Psychology in contemporary China. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press.

Written by a psychologist from the University of New South Wales and based on two visits of several months duration in 1978 and 1979-1980. This book is not only a thorough look at Chinese psychology, but it also includes extensive translations of excerpts from Acta Psychologica Sinica.

No. of references: 329

6. Cerny, J. (1965). Chinese psychiatry. International Journal of Psychiatry, 1 , 299-247.

A review of Chinese psychiatry by a Czechoslovakian author based on an extensive review of the literature (108 references, most of which are not in standard English language journals) followed by three discussions, by Dr. Ezra Vogel (a Harvard sociologist), by Dr. Denis Lazure (a Canadian psychiatrist), and by Dr. Pow Meng Yap (Chief of Psychiatry, University of Hong Kong). Although written before 1970, the article is still quite useful.

No. of references: 108

7. Cheung, F. M. (1982). Psychological symptoms among Chinese in urban Hong Kong. Social Science and Medicine, 16 , 1339-1344.

Clinical observations of Chinese mental patients have suggested that patients tend to somatize their emotional problems—that is, they tend to present somatic complaints in place of psychological complaints. This study analyzed the responses of 3,925 Chinese subjects to a 22-item psychopathology scale. The results show that endorsement of psychological items was higher than that of any other type.

No. of references: 33

8. Cheung, F. M. , & Lau, B. (1982). Situational variations of help-seeking behavior among Chinese patients. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 23 , 252-262.

The authors are Hong Kong psychologists who present a study of somatization among patients in three settings: a psychiatric outpatient clinic, a prison psychiatric service, and a general medical outpatient clinic.

No. of references: 33

9. Cheung, F. M. , & Lau, B. W. K. , & Waldmann, E. (1980-1981). Somatization among Chinese depressives in general practice. International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 10 , 361-373.

A study of 555 depressed patients and 100 nondepressed control patients from Kowloon (Hong Kong). Depressed patients presented symptoms of a somatic nature such as tiredness, whereas control subjects complained more frequently of gastrointestinal and cardiovascular problems. Depression and the expression of depression in somatic terms is common.

No. of references: 19

10. Chin, R. , & Chin, A. S. (1969). Psychological research in communist China: 1949-1966. Cambridge, MA: M. I. T. Press.

The authors, a psychologist and a sociologist, review Chinese psychological research, particularly in medical psychology, industrial psychology, educational psychology, and moral development. Outdated, but interesting from a historical perspective.

No. of references: 45 (in English)

11. Ching, C. C. (1980). Psychology in the People's Republic of China: American Psychologist, 35 , 1084-1089.

The author is on the staff of the Institute of Psychology (Peking) and a member of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. This article describes the development of psychology in China through five periods: (a) 1910-1948, the beginning, (b) 1949-1957, the early days of the People's Republic of China, (c) 1958-1965, a period of growth and development, (d) 1966-1975, the time when psychology was attacked by the Gang of Four, and (e) 1976 to the present, the period of the rebirth of psychology.

No. of references: 12

12. Chiu, L. (1972). A cross-cultural comparison of cognitive style in Chinese and American children. International Journal of Psychology, 7 , 235-242.

Two samples of fourth- and fifth-grade children were administered a cognitive style test, in which children were asked to select any two of the three objects represented that were alike and indicate the reason for the choice. American children gave significantly more responses of a descriptive-analytic style, whereas Chinese children gave more responses of a relational-contextual style.

No. of references: 14

13. Dixon, J. (1981). The welfare of urban youth in China 1949-79. Journal of Adolescence, 4 , 1-12.

This article, written by an Australian, outlines the range of policies and programs that have emerged in China since 1949 to promote the welfare of urban young people. The author discussed the Children's Palaces, centers for recreational, artistic, and political activities, and the role of the local neighborhood in organizing youth activities, the problem of urban youth unemployment, the transfer of urban youth to the countryside, and juvenile delinquency.

No. of references: 68 (many to newspaper articles)

14. Ho, D. Y. F. (1974). Prevention and treatment of mental illness in the People's Republic of China. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 44 , 620-636.

The author, a clinical psychologist with the University of Hong Kong, traces the development of psychiatry in the People's Republic of China, and discusses the treatment of mental illness according to 10 major criteria (e. g. , belief in the curability of mental illness; focus on patients' self-reliance; pragmatic, empirical, and eclectic treatments).

No. of references: 42

15. Hsia, Y. , & Tsai, N. (1981). Transcultural investigation of recent symptomatology of schizophrenia in China. American Journal of Psychiatry, 138 , 1484-1486.

The authors are from the Shanghai Psychiatric Hospital and report that during the past 15 years a number of new symptoms have been observed with increasing frequency among Chinese schizophrenic patients. These symptoms include (a) discordant syndrome (i. e. , dissociative aspects), (b) delusions involving denial of lineage (e. g. , these are not my true parents), and (c) delusions of being married, of childbearing, of being despised, and of imminent catastrophe.

No. of references: 3

16. Hsiao, S. (1977). Psychology in China. American Psychologist, 32 , 374-376.

The author, a psychologist, was one of a 20-member delegation from the University of Arizona that visited the People's Republic of China in June 1976. This article is a description of the research program undertaken by the Institute of Psychology in Peking, a branch of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. The research covers (a) theoretical issues, for example, Piaget's stages and Skinnerian operant psychology, (b) research on Chinese language, (c) child development, for example, mental deficiency, (d) vision, (e) audition, and (f) physiological psychology, for example, pain and acupuncture.

No. of references: 3

17. Hsu, C. , Soong, W. , Stigler, J. , Hong, C. , & Laing, C. (1981). The tempermental characteristics of Chinese babies. Child Development, 52 , 1337-1340.

An empirical study of 349 infants (4 to 8 months old) in Taiwan, using a Chinese translation of the Carey Revised Infant Temperament Questionnaire, which covers nine categories such as activity level, approach or withdrawal to new situations, distractability, and persistence. A comparison with American norms indicated that Chinese infants are more intense, less active, less rhythmic, less likely to approach the new, less adaptable, more negative in mood, less distractable, and to have a lower threshold of responsiveness.

No. of references: 8

18. Hsu, J. , & Tseng, W. (1974). Family relations in classic Chinese opera. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 20 , 159-172.

The authors, psychiatrists from the University of Hawaii, survey and analyze 111 Chinese opera stories that deal with family relationships and marriage. Major themes are the psychological primacy of the mother-son relationship and the portrayal of the father as a stern and authoritative figure.

No. of references: 15

19. Hsu, L. (1978). Some psychological investigations in the People's Republic of China. Australian Psychologist, 13 , 359-367.

The author is with the Institute of Psychology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and this article represents an invited address giving an overview of research projects carried out by the institute. These projects are listed under four major categories: (a) sensory and perceptual processes (e. g. , determination of industrial lighting standards, audiometry measurements), (b) physiological psychology (e. g. , normative electroencephalogram studies, chemical mechanisms of the brain), (c) genetic psychology (e. g. , concept-formation of preschool children, studies on mental retardation), and (d) acupuncture anesthesia (e. g. , the influence of psychological factors, pain threshold).

No. of references: none

20. Kao, J. J. (1974). Psychiatry in the People's Republic of China: A prospectus. American Journal of Chinese Medicine, 2 , 441-444.

A thoughtful article about understanding Chinese psychiatry that contains, however, no empirical data or references. The author was in the People's Republic of China in the summer of 1973.

No. of references: none

21. Kas, J. J. (1979). Three millennia of Chinese psychiatry. New York: Institute for Advanced Research in Asian Science and Medicine.

The author spent seven weeks in China in 1973 studying Chinese psychiatry. This monograph summarizes his personal experiences and presents an extensive review of the literature. The major portion of the book is devoted to a discussion of Chinese psychiatry since 1949.

No. of references: 125

22. Kessen, W. (Ed. ). (1975). Childhood in China. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Written by the 13 members of the American Delegation on Early Childhood Development who visited China for 20 days in November and December 1973. The report covers the Chinese family, nurseries, kindergartens and primary schools, language development, and health and nutritional factors.

No. of references: none

23. Kleinman, A. M. (1975). The symbolic context of Chinese medicine: A comparative approach to the study of traditional medical and psychiatric forms of care in Chinese culture. American Journal of Chinese Medicine, 3 , 103-124.

Written by a Harvard psychiatrist, this article explores the symbolic structure and significance of illness and care in Chinese culture so that the Western practitioner can be more sensitive and therapeutically effective with Chinese clients.

No. of references: 95 (including footnotes)

24. Kleinman, A. (1982). Neurasthenia and depression: A study of somatization and culture in China. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 6 , 117-190.

This report is the first of a projected series, reflecting a collaborative effort between the psychiatry departments of the University of Washington and Hunan Medical College. The author reviews neurasthenia, somatization and depression in Chinese culture and in the West, and presents findings on 100 Chinese patients with neurasthenia.

No. of references: 96

25. Kleinman, A. , & Lin, T. Y. (1980). Normal and abnormal behavior in Chinese culture. Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel.

As the editors indicate, much of the data presented in this volume come from research in Chinese communities outside of China. Despite this, the volume represents an extensive overview divided into four sections: (a) historical and cultural background, (b) child development and childhood psychopathology, (c) family studies, and (d) psychiatric studies.

No. of references: varies with each chapter

26. Kleinman, A. , & Mechanic, D. (1979). Some observations of mental illness and its treatment in the People's Republic of China. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 167 , 267-274.

The authors, a psychiatrist and a sociologist, visited China in June 1978. They discuss the epidemiology of mental illness in China, noting the absence of any reliable data, and they discuss the delivery of services to the mentally ill and general psychiatric theory and practice.

No. of references: 21

27. Koran, L. M. (1972). Psychiatry in Mainland China: History and recent status. American Journal of Psychiatry, 128 , 970-978.

The author, an American psychiatrist from the National Institute of Mental Health, gives a good overview of ancient Chinese medicine; he discusses such concepts as Yin and Yang and the classificatory systems of organs and diseases. He then discusses current Chinese psychiatry and suggests that future psychiatric travelers to China systematically collect information using a framework presented in the article.

No. of references: 23

28. Lao, R. C. , Chuang, C. , & Yang, K. (1977). Locus of control and Chinese college students. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 8 , 299-313.

Levenson's Internal, Powerful Others, and Chance Scales were administered to a sample of 243 male and 274 female Taiwanese college students. Men scored higher on I and lower on C (i. e. , they were more internally oriented), whereas women scored higher on P (i. e. , they were more externally oriented).

No. of references: 29

29. Lin, K. , & Kleinman, A. (1981). Recent development of psychiatric epidemiology in China. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 5 , 135-143.

The authors review six articles published (in Chinese) in the 1980 Chinese Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry that contain epidemiologic data. The data are based on six samples, covering over 5 million people who were surveyed from 1958 to 1979 (five of the six samples were studied in the 1970s). The surveys were conducted to gather data for mental health service planning, thus only syndromes with significant impact were included. Initial identification of index cases was done by trained local personnel, and final diagnosis was done by psychiatrists. Some findings: The prevalence rate for schizophrenia was 1. 9% (per 1,000 people), with higher rates for females and for urban areas. Mental retardation rates ranged from 1. 13% to 2. 9% (per 1,000), with a much higher prevalence rate in males.

No. of references: 19

30. Lin, T. Y. , & Lin, D. T. C. (1982). Alcoholism among the Chinese: Further observations of a low-risk population. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 6 , 109-116.

The senior author is a well-known Chinese psychiatrist, a World Health Organization consultant who has traveled extensively to China; this report is based on observations made on a visit between October 24 and November 25, 1981. Three hypotheses to explain the rarity of alcoholism among the Chinese are explored: (a) physiological (sensitivity to alcohol), (b) substitution (other forms of addiction serve as a substitute for alcohol), and (c) sociocultural aspects (emphasis on social rather than solitary drinking, and the occurrence of drinking with eating).

No. of references: 21

31. Liu, X. (1980). Mental health work in Sichuan. British Journal of Psychiatry, 137 , 371-376.

The author is a psychiatrist with the Sichuan Medical College, People's Republic of China. Sichuan is the biggest province of China, with a population of over 90 million people; there are 14 mental hospitals, with a bed capacity of 2,500, that serve this area, and two departments of psychiatry in medical colleges. There are no psychologists in the mental hospitals. Epidemiology and treatment of mental illness are discussed.

No. of references: none

32. Liu, X. (1981). Psychiatry in traditional Chinese medicine. British Journal of Psychiatry, 138 , 429-433.

The author is a psychiatrist with the Sichuan Medical College, People's Republic of China. This report traces the development of psychiatry and psychiatric nosology in ancient times. Several books of antiquity that mention psychiatric illness, including psychotic malingering, are discussed, as well as several systems of nosology and the use of herbal drugs and acupuncture.

No. of references: 27

33. Lowinger, P. (1977). The solution to narcotic addiction in the People's Republic of China. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 4 , 165-178.

An examination of the Chinese solution to addiction, with a particular focus on aspects relevant to American drug abuse. The author also compares addiction in mainland China with that of Hong Kong. The author visited the People's Republic of China in June 1975.

No. of references: 83

34. Masserman, J. H. (1980). Psychiatry in China: Background, theory, and practice. Current Psychiatric Therapies, 19 , 195-206.

Based on a December 1978, visit. It is an overview that covers not only psychiatric concerns, but scenery, travel, and general health. The author is a leading figure in American psychiatry, and this report reflects that perspective. Psychiatric topics are discussed in the context of a historical-geographical panorama, with careful attention paid to such aspects as the cost of hospital care and hospital routines.

No. of references: 11

35. Mechanic, D. , & Kleinman, A. (1980). Ambulatory medical care in the People's Republic of China: An exploratory study. American Journal of Public Health, 70 , 62-66.

The authors, a psychologist and a psychiatrist, visited the People's Republic of China in June, 1978, and spent considerable time in rural medical facilities. This article is based on brief interviews with 138 patients. The Chinese medical care system does not recognize and deal with psychosocial issues in illness, and the stigma of mental illness is still prevalent.

No. of references: 3

36. Robinson, N. M. (1978). Mild mental retardation: Does it exist in the People's Republic of China? Mental Retardation, 16 , 295-298.

The author visited the People's Republic of China in 1977 for 18 days and reports that mental retardation affects so few persons that it is not considered a problem in China. Reasons for this finding include the fact that Chinese society makes limited demands for intellectual competence, that there is a support network both with the extended family and the commune, and that there is an emphasis in Chinese society on minimizing individual differences.

The author discusses aspects of Chinese life related to biologically handicapping conditions, including nutrition, contraception, and primary health care and points out that a technological, competitive, and complex society like that of the U. S. demands exceptionally high levels of competence and creates difficulties for those who cannot meet such demands.

No. of references: 7

37. Singer, K. (1972). Drinking patterns and alcoholism in the Chinese. British Journal of Addictions, 67 , 3-14.

The author, a psychiatrist with the Hong Kong Psychiatric Centre, discusses drinking and alcoholism in Hong Kong. At the time of this report, the population of Hong Kong was slightly over 4 million, with 98. 5% Chinese, most of whom migrated from mainland China. Drinking is sanctioned in certain situations such as banquest, but only a small number of people regularly drink at meals; in general, drinking is incidental to eating. Alcoholism is not common but is increasing, and factual data are lacking.

No. of references: 13

38. Singer, K. , Chang, P. T. , & Hsu, G. L. K. (1972). Physique, personality and mental illness in the southern Chinese. British Journal of Psychiatry, 121 , 315-319.

The authors are from the University of Hong Kong and Castle Peak Hospital in Hong Kong. This is basically an anthropometric study of southern Chinese men (presumably from Hong Kong): 411 schizophrenics, 81 neurotics, 42 affective disorder, and 180 control subjects. The findings are in agreement with those obtained with Caucasian samples.

No. of references: 16

39. Singer, K. , Lieh-Mak, F. , & Ng, M. L. (1976). Physique, personality and mental illness in southern Chinese women. British Journal of Psychiatry, 129 , 243-247.

A parallel study to the 1972 report, this one conducted with women (317 schizophrenics, 44 with affective disorder, 47 neurotics, and 115 control subjects), Hong Kong residents, who were assessed with anthropometric measurements and a Chinese version of the Maudsley Personality Inventory. The correlational analysis reported is similar to the results found with Caucasian samples.

No. of references: 12

40. Taipale, V. , & Taipale, I. (1973). Chinese Psychiatry: A visit to a Chinese mental hospital. Archives of General Psychiatry, 29 , 313-316.

The authors, physicians from Helsinki (Finland), visited the Central Mental Hospital in Shanghai in June 1972. The article gives a historical background and discusses psychiatric treatment and advances during the post-Liberation period (1949), the Great Leap Forward (1957), and the Cultural Revolution (1966). The hospital visit is discussed. Shanghai had a population of 10 million, with approximately 2,000 psychiatric beds. Seventy percent of the patients are diagnosed as schizophrenic, and both Western psychopharmacologies and Eastern acupuncture are used.

No. of references: 9

41. Tseng, W. (1973). The development of psychiatric concepts in traditional Chinese medicine. Archives of General Psychiatry, 29 , 569-575.

The author, a psychiatrist at the University of Hawaii School of Medicine, describes the development of psychiatric concepts in traditional Chinese medicine.

The theoretical system of Chinese medicine is based on the concept of Ying and Yang (positive and negative forces), on the theory of the Five Elements (wood, fire, earth, metal, and water), and on the correspondence between the microcosm (e. g. , the body) and the macrocosm (e. g. , nature). Chinese medicine reached its peak of development in the Han Dynasty (220 B. C. to 265 A. D. ), and several psychiatric concepts find their roots there. Tseng points out that psychiatric concepts have gone through a sequence of supernatural, natural, somatic, and psychological stages in both the East and the West.

No. of references: 16

42. Tseng, W. , & Hsu, J. (1972). The Chinese attitude toward parental authority as expressed in Chinese children's stories. Archives of General Psychiatry, 26 , 28-34.

These two psychiatrists from the National Taiwan University Hospital argue that the study of children's stories is useful because these deal with the fantasies of a cultural group, are reflective of the developmental process, and provide for cross-cultural comparison. Few children's stories are widely known among the Chinese, but the authors have selected a group that include opera stories, novels, folktales, and moral stories, and are widely known, at least in Taiwan. Many stories illustrate extremely close mother-son relationships that from a Western view may appear pathological, but which are acceptable in Chinese culture.

No. of references: 16

43. Veith, I. (1978). Psychiatric foundations in the Far East. Psychiatric Annals, 8 , 275-289.

The author is Professor of Psychiatry at the University of California, San Francisco, and a historian of medicine. This article is based on a dissertation submitted to Jun Tendo University (Tokyo) and is a well-written and fascinating look at the historical and philosophical underpinnings of psychiatry as practiced in China and Japan. There is a brief but thoughtful description of Japanese Morita therapy.

No. of references: 37

44. Visher, J. S. , & Visher, E. B. (1979). Impressions of psychiatric problems and their management. American Journal of Psychiatry, 136 , 28-32.

Written by a California psychiatrist and psychologist team who visited the People's Republic of China in October, 1977, and who speculate on cultural sources of stress-related problems, including the lack of privacy, the lack of sexual outlets, and the channeling of personal strivings into community and sports-oriented achievements. A visit to the Shanghai Mental Hospital is described in detail.

No. of references: 8

45. Walls, P. D. , Walls, L. H. , & Langsley, D. G. (1975). Psychiatric training and practice in the People's Republic of China. American Journal of Psychiatry, 132 , 121-128.

The first and third authors are American psychiatrists, the second author is a biochemist and a native of China. The report is based on a 1972 3-month visit to Canton, Shanghai, Hangchow, Nanking, and Peking. The authors discuss Chinese psychiatry in a historical context of three periods: pre-1900; 1900 to 1949; and post-1949.

These authors point out that the same hospital has been given different names by different authors, creating substantial confusion, and that diagnostic incidence and figures of the prevalence of mental illness vary considerably from report to report.

No. of references: 28

46. Walsh, N. (1978). Psychiatry in the People's Republic of China. Psychiatric Annals, 8 , 290-295.

The author visited China in October, 1976, as part of a delegation of Irish physicians. Most of the article is based on a visit to the Shanghai Mental Hospital.

No. of references: none

47. Whittaker, J. O. (1970). Psychology in China: A brief survey. American Psychologist, 25 , 757-759.

A brief report by an American psychologist of changes occurring in China circa 1965-1967. The author points out that three specialties are predominant: educational, medical (or clinical), and industrial psychology.

No. of references: 11

48. Wolfe, J. C. (1980). Special report: Community mental health in China. Community Mental Health Journal, 16 , 241-248.

The author is Executive Director of the National Council of Community Mental Health Centers, and this report is based on a 2-week tour in the fall of 1979 of Canton, Peking, Shanghai, and Changsha. The author points out that despite the presence of official translators, something is lost in the translation; often long responses were translated very briefly and vice versa. Community mental health in China is discussed from the perspective of the extended family, the good of the group, and the political system.

No. of references: none

49. Xia, Z. , & Zhang, M. (1981). History and present status of modern psychiatry in China. Chinese Medical Journal, 94 , 277-282.

Written by two psychiatrists from Shanghai (First Medical College and Psychiatric Hospital), this article is an outline of the development of Chinese psychiatry in the 1900s. A good overview, particularly of the developments that occurred after the 1949 establishment of the People's Republic of China.

No. of references: none

50. Yang, K. (1981). Problem behavior in Chinese adolescents in Taiwan. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 12 , 179-193.

The author, with the National Taiwan University, administered a 130-item problem-behaviors list to approximately 5,000 adolescents in 14 junior high schools in Taiwan. The problems were arrayed by two psychologists into 16 major groups, such as (a) smoking, drinking, and drug abuse, (b) undesirable recreational activities, and (c) anxiety over schooling. A factor analysis of the 16 groupings indicated two major factors, a general maladjustment factor and an outward-inward orientation factor, similar to the neuroticism and extraversion-introversion dimensions.

No. of references: 31

51. Yap, P. M. (1965). Koro—A culture-bound depersonalization syndrome. British Journal of Psychiatry, 111 , 43-50.

The author was head of psychiatry at Hong Kong University. Koro refers to a state of acute anxiety with partial depersonalization leading to the conviction that a man suffers from penile shrinkage. A series of 19 cases seen over a 15-year period in Hong Kong is discussed.

No. of references: 28

52. Yap, P. M. (1974). Comparative psychiatry: A theoretical framework. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

The author was a distinguished psychiatrist associated with the University of Toronto and the University of Hong Kong who died in 1971. This monograph was published posthumously and looks at the common etiology of mental disease within cultural diversity.

No. of references: varies with each chapter

53. Young, D. (1980). The relationship between etiology and symptomatology in psychiatry. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 4 , 17-23.

A theoretical article by one of China's leading psychiatrists. It gives a good insight into the theoretical perspectives of Chinese psychiatry.

No. of references: 9

54. Young, D. , & Chang, M. (1983). Psychiatry in the People's Republic of China. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 24 , 431-438.

Both authors are practicing psychiatrists with major Chinese medical schools, and they give a brief historical overview.

No. of references: none

Received: February 23, 1984. Revised: July 2, 1984.